CITATION AND COPYRIGHT INFORMATION:
Cite as: Higgins, J. W. (2003, May). Sense-Making as a pedagogical tool. Paper presented at a non-divisional workshop held at the meeting of the International Communication Association, San Diego, CA.
© John W. Higgins (2003).

INTRODUCTION:
For several years I have used Dervin’s Sense-Making as a practical means to further the liberatory goals of critical and feminist pedagogies in the university classroom. The venues have ranged from campuses at Ohio state universities, Turkish Cyprus and, most recently, private universities and colleges in the San Francisco Bay Area; classes have included Web design to communication research.

Use of Sense-Making as a pedagogical tool for self-reflexivity has not been entirely smooth. When I first began using the process, I often encountered resistance from students, who complained that the process was too repetitive and tedious. I noted in 1998, regarding a project with Turkish Cypriot students engaged in collecting oral histories from neighbors and family members who had gone through “the troubles” in Cyprus: [1]

. . . the interviews . . . reflected an annoyance at times with the repetition involved in the Sense-Making structure. My familiarity with Sense-Making interviews leads me to surmise that this is most probably due to a rigid application of the interview structure on the part of a novice interviewer; a more flexible approach to the questions and probes would probably alleviate the sense of tedium on the part of some respondents. To me, it indicates that potential Sense-Making student interviewers could use more training in, discussions of, and demonstrations of the Sense-Making method. [2]

I have since recognized that the problem lay to a greater extent with the protocol I had designed (Appendix A). More recently I have adapted the protocol and process students utilize in the classroom (Appendix B) [3]. The number of these types of complaints has dropped, as I have adapted the process to better suit the circumstances . . . and Sense-Making.

Students in a basic research class were learning how to conduct in-depth structured interviews based on Sense-Making. The class had previously taken a field trip to engage in a participant observation and note-taking exercise at an elaborate video arcade in downtown San Francisco. During the in-class exercise, students used a Sense-Making protocol I prepared (Appendix B) and took turns interviewing and being interviewed by their classmates. After the exercise, students were asked to write a paragraph or two, talking about their reactions to the interview process. Their comments are provided in Appendix C.

APPENDIX A:
EXAMPLE OF EARLIER SENSE-MAKING PROTOCOL (1996):
Turkish Cypriot Ethnographies: Protocol for Depth Interview:
Instructions to Interviewers
You are going to ask your interviewee to talk about events they witnessed, or took part in, in 1 of the following time periods:

1. Pleasant experiences with Greek neighbors;
2. Between 1963 and 1974;
3. During the 1974 war;
4. During the 1974 forced migration; or
5. After 1974, living in the TRNC.

Here is an example of the wording you might use, depending on the topic your participant is discussing:
“Think back to an experience you had that is an example of:”

1. “Your pleasant memories with your Greek neighbors in the past.”
2. “Your life in Cyprus between 1963 and 1974.”
3. “Your life in Cyprus during the 1974 war.”
4. “Your life in Cyprus during the time in 1974 when you moved from your home to where you live now.”
5. “Your life in North Cyprus after 1974.”

“What is that experience you had—what happened?”

Probing the Responses:
After your participant describes the experience, ask questions to follow up his or her story—probe his or her responses. The idea is to get your informant to talk about their experiences in depth. You might try these follow-up questions:

1a. Did you have any thoughts or ideas or conclusions at that time? What were these thoughts or ideas or conclusions?

• Did these thoughts or ideas or conclusions help you in any way? How did they help you? And how did THAT help you?
• Were these thoughts or ideas or feelings or conclusions a problem for you in any way? How were they a problem? And how was THAT a problem?

2a. Did you have any feelings or emotions at that time? What were these feelings or emotions?

• Did these feelings or emotions help you in any way? How did they help you? And how did THAT help you?
• Were these feelings or emotions a problem for you in any way? How were they a problem? And how was THAT a problem?

3a. Did you have any questions or confusions at this time? What were these questions or confusions?

• Did these questions or confusions help you in any way? How did they help you? And how did THAT help you?
• Were these questions or confusions a problem for you in any way? How were they a problem? And how was THAT a problem?

4a. Was there anything that happened during this time that was helpful for you? What was it? (Something someone said or did—whatever).

• How did this help you? And how did THAT help you? And how did THAT help you?

5a. Was there anything that happened during this time that hurt you or got in your way or was a problem for you somehow? What was it? (Something someone said or did—whatever).

• How did this hurt you or was a problem for you? And how did THAT hurt you or was a problem for you? And how did THAT hurt you or was a problem for you?

6a. Was there anything during this time that MIGHT HAVE helped you or COULD HAVE helped your? What was it?

• How would this have helped you? And how would THAT have helped you? And how would THAT have helped you?

7a. During this time period, was there anything special that stands out in your mind about the media (radio, television, newspapers, etc.) or the way media was used in your family or by your friends? What was it that stands out in your mind about the media during this time period?

• Did you have any thoughts or ideas or feelings or emotions at that time? What were these thoughts or ideas or feelings or emotions?
  • Did these thoughts or ideas or feelings or emotions help you in any way? How did they help you? And how did THAT help you?
  • Were these thoughts or ideas or feelings or emotions a problem for you in any way? How were they a problem? And how was THAT a problem?
• Did the media help you in any way at that time during this period? How did the media help you? And how did THAT help you?
• Were the media a problem for you in any way at this time period? How were the media a problem for you? And how was THAT a problem?

8. Let’s look back at all of these things you have told me about this period—the ideas, feelings, questions, helps, and problems you had. Is there anything in your experience during this time that you would say was a “lesson for life?” What is that “lesson for life?”

9. Is there anything you else you would like to say about your experience during this time?

10. Is there anything you would like to say about the questions I have asked or the style of the interview itself?

Demographics:
11. Occupation (or life’s work):
12. Age:
13. Sex:
14. Nationality:
15. Where this person now lives (country and city/town/village):
16. Where this person lived during the events described during the interview:
17. What was the occupation (or life’s work) of the main income earner in the household when this person was growing up:
18. Any other demographic information you think is important:

APPENDIX B:
EXAMPLE OF REVISED SENSE-MAKING HANDOUT AND PROTOCOL:
Media Research Class, spring 2003:
Interviewing Using Dervin’s Sense-Making Methodology

Below is a style of asking questions that you might find useful when interviewing people about their media and/or technology experiences—including use of the Web and, specifically, Web sites (architecture and design). This style is called “Sense-Making” and was developed by Dr. Brenda Dervin at Ohio State University over the course of 30 years. Sense-Making works very well at determining what “sense” people make of a particular situation or experience. Often, the sense that users make of a situation or experience bears little resemblance to the sense that designers, engineers, or researchers think users make of that same experience or situation.

Sense-Making Methodology

Sense-Making is rooted in people’s experiences. Sense-Making assumes that people encounter gaps in their lives, and construct bridges in order to bridge these gaps. The result is an outcome that they have constructed themselves. In Sense-Making, it is important not to stop with the first level of answer; instead, you should keep on “chaining” or “probing” your responses (going deeper, based on the previous response).

Yes, in the beginning, the process does seem repetitious—until you become more familiar with the process. You’ll find, though, that if you keep pushing and probing, you might be amazed at the connections your interviewee’s mind makes after much chaining, or probing. This is often the real “pay dirt” in the interview—but it takes some effort to uncover by continuing to chain or probe. The results you get from asking these questions can provide valuable data. [4]

Before you go out and start interviewing people, it is a good idea to practice on yourself—to ask these questions of yourself, to get you thinking about and reflecting on your own experiences.

A Few Rules for the Interview

• The questions below may be adapted somewhat to better fit the situation—but try to follow as closely as possible the general structure of the chaining.
• The person being interviewed is free to interpret the question as she or he may. This often gives an important, often unexpected perspective to the data collected.
• The information in capital letters, inside the brackets in the questions below should NOT be read aloud to the person being interviewed. [THESE ARE JUST DIRECTIONS TO YOU, THE INTERVIEWER].
• Allow enough time for the interview. The Sense-Making interview often lasts from 1 to 2 hours.

The Interview Protocol, Based on Sense-Making Methodology

[YOU, SPEAKING TO A INTERVIEWEE]: “Let’s look at your experiences while you were _____________ [FILL IN THE EXPERIENCE: MAYBE “USING THIS TECHNOLOGY”?]. I will be asking you some questions that you are free to interpret in any way that makes sense to you. We are really interested in your experiences and your thoughts, ideas, emotions, problems, and questions related to your experience _____________ [FILL IN THE EXPERIENCE]. To do this I will often repeat back to you what you told me—to make sure I heard you correctly—and then try to probe deeper into your experience. If you do not have a response to a particular question, feel free to say that you have no response. If my question reminds you of something you would like to add to your comments, feel free to add to your response. Do you have any questions about this process?” [ANSWER ANY QUESTIONS THE INTERVIEWEE MAY HAVE] “OK, let’s begin.”

1a. While you were _____________ [using this technology], did you have any thoughts or ideas or conclusions regarding your experience that were significant or notable to you for any reason?
[IF YES]: What were these thoughts or ideas or conclusions? [LIST EACH THOUGHT, IDEA, CONCLUSION. THEN, FOR EACH:]

2a. While you were _____________ [using this technology], did you have any feelings or emotions regarding your experience?
[IF YES]: What were these feelings or emotions? [LIST EACH FEELING OR EMOTION. THEN, FOR EACH:]

3a. While you were _____________ [using this technology], did you have any questions or confusions regarding your experience?
[IF YES]: What were these questions or confusions? [LIST EACH QUESTION OR CONFUSION. THEN, FOR EACH:]

4a. While you were _____________ [using this technology], was there anything that happened or that you encountered that was helpful for you in some way?
[IF YES]: What was it? (Something someone said or did, an aspect of the _____________ [technology?]—whatever). [LIST EACH HELP. THEN, FOR EACH:]

5a. While you were _____________ [using this technology], was there anything that happened or that you encountered that hindered you, or hurt you, or got in your way, or was a problem for you in some way?
[IF YES]: What was it that was a hindrance for you? (Something someone said or did, an aspect of the _____________ [technology?]—whatever). [LIST EACH HINDRANCE. THEN, FOR EACH:]

6a. While you were _____________ [using this technology], was there anything that MIGHT HAVE helped you or COULD HAVE helped you?
[IF YES]: What was it that might have helped you? [LIST EACH POSSIBLE HELP. THEN, FOR EACH:]

APPENDIX C:
STUDENT RESPONSES TO [REVISED] SENSE-MAKING INTERVIEW EXERCISE:
Media Research Class, spring 2003:

I liked that there were questions laid out. I also felt that it was helpful that I was there so I knew what the interviewee was talking about. I noticed some things that bothered me that I had forgotten about that the interviewee reminded me about. I realized a lot of problems that are easy to fix at the Metreon—like better directions. (Sadie)

What stands out from the interview process is that conducting the interview using questions and LISTENING uncovered a wealth of information from the person talking. The process enabled being empathetic and not judging responses. It was refreshing to just listen and see the interviewee as he is. (Ena)

I realized I would rather be the interviewer than the interviewee. But at the same time I would rather listen and look into her eyes than trying to get down every word in my notes. There also has to be some trust between the two. One I am writing the truth and two, she is saying the truth. (Sally)

What I noticed most of all was the two of us made constant eye contact with each other. I think this helped a lot because it made me feel as if she was really listening to the comments on the questions that I answered. The only downside to the interviews was that they felt tedious. I kind of felt I was answering the same questions over and over again. (Mela)

I noticed that this interviewing style was a lot more in-depth. At first it seemed repetitive, but as I continued to probe I realized that any slight change to the question could get a completely different response. I noticed that it made the interview think a lot more and come up with more details and analysis. (Amy)

When I was interviewing, it was very hard to write notes and look the person in the eye at the same time. We laughed every time we tried to be serious because it was just so funny. When I was interviewed, I found that I was trying to act very scholarly when answering questions. (Mike)

It is hard to write while looking at another person. Also, you have to write sloppily but just legibly enough to be able to read it later. (Victor)

I noticed that sometimes it may be hard to get enough information out of a person if they aren’t willing to share or don’t feel strongly enough about something. The interview process may take some effort to pry info out of the interviewee. (Bob)

What stood out to me was how easy it was to conduct an interview. I though it’d be harder but it is just a conversation with a little more emphasis on focusing on a subject. (Riana)

Writing and listening while making eye contact is extremely difficult/challenging. Asking the right questions to initiate significant responses is crucial. Repetitive or insignificant questions can ruin/stall the interview. (Tim)

FOOTNOTES:

1. See http://faculty.menlo.edu/~jhiggins/tcvoices.
2. See: Higgins, J. W. (1998, July). Critical/feminist pedagogies in the context of Turkish Cyprus. Paper presented at the conference of the International Association for Media and Communication Research, Participatory Communication Research Section, Glasgow, Scotland (p. 26).
3. Thanks to Brenda Dervin for her comments and suggestions regarding these changes.
4. These notes are considered just the raw data. In a research report, you would not just repeat these data. Rather, you would use the notes as something to trigger deeper thought and analysis about the experience of the person you interviewed. You would then carefully craft an insightful report that incorporated the ideas emerging from the data, as indicated by your research.

OTHER MATERIALS BY THIS AUTHOR ON THIS WEB SITE:
See: http://communication.sbs.ohio-state.edu/sense-making/AAauthors/authorlisthiggins.html